Article review date

August 2024

Article publication date

July 2024

Summary

This meta-analysis of cohort studiesevaluated the current evidence on the association between occupational exposure to ionising radiation and risk of thyroid cancer. A total of six studies published between 2006 and 2021, which had a total of 420,543 participants, 6,322 cases and a mean follow-up period of 23 years, were included in the analysis. Data on radiation exposure levels (in Gray (Gy) or mSv) were available for almost all studies; whereas the information on thyroid cancer was largely based on clinical (i.e., histopathological) diagnosis except two studies which had self-reported diagnosis. The associations between ionising radiation exposure (i.e., personal or estimated thyroid doses)  and thyroid cancer were examined in terms of risk ratio (RR) with 95% confidence interval (CI). Quality assessment of the included studies was also conducted according to the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS). The results showed that the five included studies had reported the occupational radiation exposure doses (individual doses or estimated thyroid doses), which ranged from 10.4 to 500 mGy or <0.20 to 7.2 mSv. Occupational radiation exposure was associated with the risk of thyroid cancer (RR=1.61, 95% CI: 1.27‑2.04). Sex-wise sensitivity analysis further showed that males with the history of occupational radiation exposure (compared to females) tend to be at a slightly higher risk of developing thyroid cancer (RR=1.74, 95% CI: 1.61‑1.87 vs. RR=1.30, 95% CI: 1.15‑1.48). Overall, the evidence from the meta-analysis indicates that occupational exposure to ionising radiation was associated with the risk of thyroid cancer. 

Published in

Oncology Letters

Link to study

Occupational radiation exposure and risk of thyroid cancer: A meta‑analysis of cohort studies 

Commentary by ARPANSA

The meta-analysis provides the latest risk estimate of thyroid cancer risk among occupationally exposed human populations to ionising radiation. These findings are consistent with those of a previous pooled analysis of seven studies (Ron et al, 1995); however, contrary to those reported in a previous case-control study (Fincham et al, 2000). Similarly, the findings that males tend to have higher risk of developing thyroid cancer is contrary to the findings of a latest study (Khoramian et al., 2024) reporting higher thyroid cancer risk among females (compared to males) undergoing head CT imaging. No similar data are available to compare these findings in the Australian context. A key limitation of the current meta-analysis is that the available data in the included studies did not allow a detailed subgroup analysis of the occupation type, dose‑effect and time‑effect relationship. Further, the meta-analysis doesn't provide any information on the exposure contrast, so it is difficult to determine whether the exposure metrics that were used in the meta-analysis from the different studies were appropriate. Though quality of a majority of the included studies in the meta-analysis was high, they had a considerable heterogeneity (I²=84%) resulting in between-study variance.

In Australia, The Code for Radiation Protection in Planned Exposure Situations  sets out the requirements for the protection of occupationally exposed persons in all planned exposure situations. All Australian jurisdictions have uniform annual limits (20 mSv) for occupational exposure to ionising radiation. In addition to the dose limits, optimisation of radiation protection and safety involves practising ‘as low as reasonably achievable (ALARA) considering economic and societal factors.

Article review date

August 2024

Article publication date

July 2024

ARPANSA summary

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of public health messaging in relation to sun protection when using appearance-based or health-based messages. The study recruited 95 participants (aged 17-24 years) who first completed a questionnaire on their sun protection behaviour and knowledge. The participants were then shown one of six possible text messages and their sun protection intentions were evaluated. Each of the six text messages tried a different strategy to appeal to the study participants. The messages either contained information on melanoma health risk, methods of sun protection, the cosmetic consequences of surgical melanoma removal or a combination thereof. The results showed that none of the messages affected the sun protection intentions of the participants compared to a control message indicating no significant difference between any of the interventions. Outside of the intervention evaluations, the survey found a gender-gap in sunbathing behaviour where 26% of male participants sunbathed compared to 60% of female participants. 

Link to study

Sun safety in young Queensland adults: behaviours, knowledge, and responses to health-based and appearance-based text messages

Published in

Australian Psychologist

ARPANSA commentary

Ongoing sun protection campaigns in Australia like SunSmart continue to seek to improve the efficacy of their messaging, ultimately with the goal of reducing adverse health outcomes related to sun overexposure. Recent studies (Persson, S. et al., 2018; Mahler, H. 2015; Cheng, J. et al. 2018) have indicated that appealing to concerns about appearance may be more effective than appealing to concerns about health risk and this direction has been partially adopted by some newer sun protection campaigns. 

The present study did not add significantly to this discussion as neither the health-based nor appearance-based messages had an effect compared to the control. The use of a single intra-survey text message to deliver the intervention and the absence of follow-up behaviour evaluations were highlighted as major limitations that contributed to the ineffectiveness shown. The authors also identified several other limitations with their study including low statistical power for the number of conditions that were tested and a gender imbalance among the study participants. It should also be noted that the appearance-based messaging in the study focused on surgical scarring from melanoma excisions, whereas other studies have focused primarily on skin photo-aging. This difference, although subtle, is significant as photo-aging is a much more deterministic outcome compared to melanoma and related treatments.

Whenever the UV-index is over three, ARPANSA recommends protecting yourself from the sun by following the five sun protection principles. More information about the risks of sun exposure and methods of sun protection can be found from: The World Health Organization, The Cancer Council of Australia and SunSmart websites. 

Article review date

August 2024

Article publication date

August 2024

ARPANSA summary

This prospective cohort study examined the association between exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic energy (RF-EME) from the use of Wi-Fi, cordless and mobile phones, and behavioural problems among children. The study included 2,465 children (aged 8-17 years) from the Hokkaido Study on Environment and Children's Health. Data on the use of Wi-Fi, cordless and mobile phones was collected from parent-child dyads at baseline (October 2020-January 2021). Data on the children’s behavioural problems were collected at baseline and follow-up (September 2021-March 2022) via a Strength and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ). The children were categorized into four groups of composite measure of behaviour stability: normal (i.e., no difficulty at baseline and follow-up), persistent (borderline/clinical at baseline and follow-up), improved (borderline/clinical at baseline and normal follow-up), and concurrent (normal at baseline and borderline/clinical at follow-up). The association between RF-EME and different behavioural problems in children were estimated in terms of odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval (CI).

No overall statistically significant association was found between RF-EMF exposure from Wi-Fi, cordless or mobile phone calls via mobile networks, and behavioural problems.  Conducting phone calls via the internet for over 40 minutes weekly had an increased risk (OR 2.01; 95% CI:1.14–3.57) for concurrent total difficulty scores. Mobile phone audio-streaming between 60 to 120 minutes weekly had a reduced risk (OR 0.53; 95% CI:0.30–0.93) for persistent total difficulty score. Cordless phone use was associated with higher odds (OR 1.88; 95% CI:1.24–2.85) of improved total difficulty scores. 

Link to study

Link between Wi-Fi, cordless devices, mobile phone usage patterns, and behavioral problems among Japanese children: A prospective cohort study

Published in

Environmental Research

ARPANSA commentary

The study largely showed that no association was found between Wi-Fi, mobile phone calls via mobile networks, and behavioural problems. However, there were a few sporadic findings showing both positive and negative effects. It is likely that these may have been affected by confounding or chance findings. A major limitation of the study is that the data on the uses of Wi-Fi and mobile and cordless phones were self-reported or reported by a parent on behalf of their child, which results in recall bias and an inaccurate estimation of the effect. Another major limitation is that any effects arising from RF-EME exposure could not be distinguished from effects that result from the activities themselves (e.g., texting, gaming/streaming and social media use). 

Overall the results of the study are consistent with the findings of the latest World Health Organization review and two Australian studies  (Bhatt et al., 2017; Thomas et al., 2011). The effect exposure to RF-EME sources on cognition has been reviewed by the International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) in their 2020 guidelines and they concluded that there is no substantiated experimental or epidemiological evidence that exposure to RF-EME affects cognition.  Overall, there remains no consistent scientific evidence that exposure to RF-EME below the limits set in ARPANSA safety standard, which is aligned with the ICNIRP guidelines, is a hazard to human health. 

22 August 2024

20 August 2024

Article review data

August 2024

Article publication date

June 2024

ARPANSA summary

This cohort study, conducted in the USA, examined the impact of ambient ultraviolet radiation (UVR)  on the incidence of ocular melanoma. The study included 18,089 cases of ocular melanoma collected from 21 of the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) population-based cancer registries from 2000-2019. Cases were stratified by county of residence, sex, age at diagnosis and year of diagnosis (2000–2003, 2004–2007, 2008–2011, 2012–2015, 2016–2019). The UVR exposure used in the study was based on cloud adjusted UVR measurements from 2000 different locations that are meant to represent high population areas.

The authors reported no association for the highest quartile of UVR exposure and total ocular melanoma (UVR Q4 versus Q1 incidence rate ratio (IRR) = 0.98; 95% confidence interval (CI):0.94-1.03). However, there was an association for the highest quartile of UVR exposure and ocular melanoma in ciliary body/iris cases specifically (IRR = 1.63; 95%CI:1.43-1.87). The authors concluded there was association between solar UVR and ocular melanoma in the ciliary body/iris, but not for all anatomical sites when using the highest exposed category of solar UVR. 

Link to study

Ambient ultraviolet radiation and ocular melanoma incidence in the United States, 2000−2019

Published in

Eye

ARPANSA commentary

This study indicated an association between high solar UVR exposure and ocular melanoma in the ciliary body/iris. For the highest exposed category there was no association for total ocular melanoma cases. The observed lack of an association is contrary to the well-established link between UVR and skin melanoma (Olsen et al 2015). The lack of an association in total ocular melanoma could be due to a number of confounders relating to the lack of individualised exposure assessment in this study.  The actual ocular UVR a person is exposed to could deviate significantly from the UVR depending on how much time they spend outside each day, usage of eye protection (sunglasses) and their occupation. None of these factors were considered by the authors. This could result in misclassification bias where the people in the low exposure group could have high exposure and those in the high exposure group could have low exposure. While the study does provide interesting results for how solar UVR might impact ocular melanoma no firm conclusions can be drawn from their findings. An Australian study that looked at ocular  melanoma reported a higher age-standardized incidence rate in people 55 and older between 2008-2013 (ASR) in Queensland (ASR 3.9, 95% CI 3.3–4.5) that has a higher average UV index compared to Victoria (ASR 2.8, 95% CI 2.4–3.1) (Chalada et al 2021). However, this study also suffers from misclassification bias as it also does not present individual exposure data or account for sun protective behaviours.

17 July 2024

ARPANSA has issued a licence to the Australian Submarine Agency to prepare a site for the prescribed radiation facility known as the ‘Controlled Industrial Facility’.  The proposed Controlled Industrial Facility will provide low-level waste management and maintenance services to support the Submarine Rotational Force – West program, which is being planned at the existing HMAS Stirling Navy Base, Garden Island, Rockingham, Western Australia.  

ARPANSA is responsible for licensing Commonwealth entities that use or produce radiation and applies a 
strict review and assessment process once a licence application is received.

The ARPANSA CEO elected to invite public comment in relation to the application due to the level of public interest and as this is the first licence application to ARPANSA from the newly formed Australian Submarine Agency (ASA).

ARPANSA received 165 submissions in relation to the ASA licence application. These submissions were reviewed and considered alongside the regulatory assessment of the licence application. A summary of the submission themes and ARPANSA responses is available on the ARPANSA website.

The siting licence approval is the first stage of a stringent licencing process that requires separate applications for siting, construction, operation and decommissioning.

Parliament is considering legislation to establish a dedicated naval nuclear power safety regulator, the Australian Naval Nuclear Power Safety Regulator (ANNPSR). Until the new regulator is established, ARPANSA will regulate nuclear and radiological safety for ASA.

Future applications for the Controlled Industrial Facility are likely to be made while ARPANSA remains the regulatory authority for nuclear and radiological safety for ASA. The CEO has committed to continuing to invite public comment on all future ASA facility licences considered by ARPANSA.

ARPANSA undertakes comprehensive regulatory assessment and applies appropriate licence conditions to ensure the protection of people and the environment from the harmful effects of radiation.

Read more:

Review date

June 2024

Article publication date

June 2024

Summary 

This systematic review evaluated the evidence on exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic energy (RF EME) and the long-term impacts on cognition in epidemiological studies. The review screened 3945 research papers and of these 5 prospective cohort studies were included in the final analysis. These studies were conducted between 2006 and 2017 and included 4639 participants consisting of 2808 adults and 1831 children across three countries (Australia, Singapore and Switzerland). The main source of RF EME was mobile phone use which was measured by the self-reported number of calls per week or minutes per day. Of the included studies only two, that investigated the effects of RF EME on cognition in children, were similar enough to be included in a meta-analysis (Bhatt et al. 2017 and Thomas et al. 2017). 

The meta-analysis found little to no effect of RF EME on learning and memory, executive function and complex attention in children with low or very low certainty of evidence. The review also assessed the effects of RF EME in elderly people and also found no evidence of an effect in any of the examined cognitive domains with very low certainty of evidence. An exposure–response relationship was not identified for any of the cognitive outcomes. The authors concluded that further studies are needed to address all types of populations, exposures and cognitive outcomes. 

Link to

The effects of radiofrequency exposure on cognition: A systematic review and meta-analysis of human observational studies

Published in

Environment International

Commentary by ARPANSA

The review found no consistent evidence of an effect of RF EME on cognition. However, there were limitations in the available evidence. One issue with the available literature is that the majority of the previous studies are cross-sectional studies, and these were not included in the systematic review. This is because they are unable to assess the long-term impact of exposure as they assess exposure and effect simultaneously by design. While the number of included studies was reduced, inclusion of cross-sectional studies would not have increased the certainty of the evidence. Previous narrative reviews that included cross-sectional studies reported inconsistent associations, with some finding improved cognition (Ishihara et al, 2020; ARPANSA, 2014).

There were several other limitations in the evidence including the fact that the effects of RF EME on cognition could not be separated from the effects of mobile phone use on cognition. This includes the impact that behaviours such as texting, gaming and social media use have on cognition. Another limitation in the evidence is exposure assessment being based on self-reported mobile phone use which can result in recall bias. 

Another major issue is that all of the studies used different tests to examine cognition. One of the main recommendations of this systematic review is that in future studies a consistent set of cognitive function tests for evaluation of each cognitive domain should be used. 

Overall, while there is no consistent evidence of an effect of RF-EMF exposure on cognition more long-term observational studies are needed to address important knowledge gaps.

The effect of RF EME on cognition has been reviewed by the International Commission on Non-Ionising Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) in their 2020 guidelines and they concluded there is no substantiated experimental or epidemiological evidence that exposure to RF EME affects cognition.  Overall, there remains no consistent scientific evidence that exposure to RF EME below the limits set in ARPANSA safety standard which is aligned with the ICNIRP guidelines is a hazard to human cognition or any other health effects. 

This review is part of the World Health Organisation’s (WHO) ongoing project assessing the health effects of RF-EMF. ARPANSA is supporting this WHO review process. One of the ongoing WHO systematic reviews will be examining cognitive impairment in human experimental studies (Pophof et al, 2021). This review will include an examination of the acute effects that RF EME has on cognition.