Radiation literature survey

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p>This is a cross-sectional study that aimed to assess the effects of RF exposure on cognition. A total of ninety participants aged 17-25 years were divided equally into 3 groups according to their mobile phone use: less than 5 years, more than 5 years, and no mobile phone use. The electroencephalography (EEG) analysis revealed that there was no significant difference among the three groups. The authors concluded that long-term mobile phone use does not affect cognition.

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This is a cohort study that investigated the effects of mobile phone use on male reproductive health. A total of 794 college students were included in the study in 2013 and they were reassessed in 2014 and 2015 (the loss of follow up was around 16% and 28% in 2014 and 2015, respectively). The information on mobile phone use was self-reported and the semen parameters including sperm count, volume and concentration were analysed. The authors reported that the mobile phone call duration using mobile phones was significantly associated with decreased semen parameters and thus concluded that mobile phone use may impair male fertility.

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The Advanced Research on Interaction Mechanisms of electroMagnetic exposures with Organisms for Risk Assessment (ARIMMORA) project is a risk assessment funded by the European Commission to review the association between extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields (MF) and childhood leukaemia after the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified ELF MF as "possibly carcinogenic to humans" in 2002. Overall, the project found that there is a limited evidence of carcinogenicity in humans and inadequate evidence of carcinogenicity in experimental animals, with only weak supporting evidence from mechanistic studies, which confirms the validity of the IARC classification. The ARIMMORA project found that if the association is established, up to 2% of childhood leukaemia cases in Europe would be attributable to ELF-MF.

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A paper published by the same main author in 2011 (reported in October 2011’s report) that reviewed a number of studies investigating ELF-MF and childhood cancers found that the assessment of ELF MF as a possible carcinogen was valid, mainly based on epidemiological evidence. It was found that more than 20 epidemiological studies have shown an association with relatively high consistency. Schuz et al estimated in 2011 that if there was a cause and effect relationship between ELF MF and childhood leukaemia, about 1% of all childhood leukaemia cases are attributable to ELF MF in Europe, and about 3% in North America.

The latest finding from the ARIMMORA project has estimated that up to 2% of childhood leukaemia cases in Europe will be caused by higher than typical ELF MF exposure (4 milligauss, mG and above), if the cause and effect relationship is assumed. The project acknowledged that the continuing existence of scientific uncertainty is dissatisfactory for public health messaging. However the continuing uncertainty is justified by the fact that although some epidemiological studies support a possible association with childhood leukaemia this is not supported by experimental studies.

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This is an animal study that investigated whether radiofrequency (RF) exposure causes any effects in the development of the offspring. A total of 16 pregnant rats were divided into 4 groups: exposed to either 0, 6, 12, or 24 hours a day. Details of the exposure received by the animals were not provided by the study. The exposure was at a frequency of 1800 megahertz and maximum power output of 2 Watts. The bone development of the male offspring was then evaluated after 60 days of birth. The authors reported that RF exposure during the prenatal period may inhibit bone and muscle tissue development.

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This paper described the results of a systematic review and meta-analysis of in vitro studies that investigated the association between extremely low frequency (ELF) magnetic fields (MF) and calcium homeostasis (which is an indicator of efficient signalling between cells in the body). The systematic review, which included a total of 42 studies, showed evidence of an association. The meta-analysis revealed that there was a statistically significant effect of ELF MF exposure on both the frequency of calcium oscillations and intracellular calcium levels. Although the results supported an association between ELF MF exposure and calcium homeostasis, the authors noted that high heterogeneity in the different studies weakened the findings.

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This is a human provocation study that investigated whether electromagnetic fields (EMF) exposure is associated with adverse health symptoms. A total of 72 people (36 claiming to have electromagnetic hypersensitivity, EHS, and 36 controls) were given sham exposure to an MF source (the participants were blinded to the exposure). Anxiety, EMF-related worries, and other subjective symptoms were assessed via questionnaires. People who claimed to have EHS reported more symptoms and had higher levels of anxiety than the controls. The authors suggested that somatosensory amplification is the biggest contributor to EHS.

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This is an in vitro study that investigated whether radiofrequency (RF) exposure has any effects on cancer cells. Three types of human cancer cells (leukaemia, breast cancer, and hepatic cancer cells) were exposed to RF via the RF identification (RFID) microchip technology. The exposure was at a frequency of 134.2 kilohertz (kHz) and no exposure level was indicated. Four experiment settings were compared which involved all possible combinations of inactive/active activator (where the signal is generated) and with/without microchip. The authors found that the RF exposure emanating from the active microchip slowed down the growth of cancer cells.

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This Australian cohort study investigated whether there is an association between wireless phone use and cognitive function in children. The cohort included a total of 619 children aged 8-11 years from schools in Melbourne and Wollongong. Information on mobile and cordless phone use was obtained via questionnaires and the children were tested for cognitive function. Overall, there was no support of an association between wireless phones use and cognitive function in primary school-aged children.

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This paper reported the results that were obtained at the start of the cohort study (baseline), which will be compared to the results obtained at a later time (after a period of follow-up).

As commented on January 2016’s report, studies investigating cognitive effects of mobile phone use on children have yielded inconsistent results so far.

Obtaining information via questionnaires can produce information bias. In this study by Redmayne et al, it was interesting to note that many children reported themselves as using a mobile phone whereas the parents reported that they were not using it.

Another interesting finding was that there was a significant difference in the reaction time (which is a measured parameter of cognitive function) on one of the tasks between girls and boys (gender effects), which may warrant further investigation.

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This is a human provocation study which investigated whether the RF heating effects cause harm to human eyes. The study involved 16 head and neck cancer patients that were treated by hyperthermia, which used intense RF radiation at a frequency of 434 megahertz (for 60 minutes per treatment). The effects of stray radiation received by the eyes were examined. The peak local specific absorption rate (SAR) and temperature increase in the eye was at least 62 watts per kilogram (W/kg) (6.2 times the limit of the Australian Standard) and 1.8°C (the Australian Standard is providing protection against temperature increase of 1°C), respectively. There were no serious ocular effects even though the subjects were overexposed. The authors concluded that the current international guidelines on RF (to which the Australian Standard is aligned) provide adequate protection against adverse health effects.

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p>This is a cross-sectional study that investigated the effects of low level radiofrequency (RF) radiation on cognitive and behavioural functions in children. A subset of 123 boys aged 9-11 years that originally enrolled in a cohort study was surveyed and evaluated for their cognitive and behavioural functions. Environmental RF exposure was assessed via spot measurements at the residences of the participants. The median power density level was 285.94 microwatts per meter-squared (μW/m2), which is hundreds of times below the public exposure limit in the Australian RF Standard. The authors found no overall effects on cognitive and behavioural functions.

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Two cohort studies that investigated behavioural problems in children where the mothers had maternal RF exposure from wireless phones have reported little or no evidence of behavioural effects in the offspring (reported as feature articles in February 2010 and February 2013 reports).

Two human provocation studies done in children on cognitive functions did not find any effects (Haarala et al, 2004 and Preece et al, 2005) as reported in the Health Effects from Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Fields report by the Advisory Group on Non-Ionising Radiation.

A cross-sectional study on cognitive effects from RF radiation in adolescents (reported as a feature article in August 2010) found that increased exposure of RF radiation causes changes in cognitive functions. However the authors noted that the self-assessment of wireless phone use to be the major limitation of the study.

This study by Calvente et al which also follows a cross-sectional design is prone to many methodological limitations which were noted by the authors. Although the exposure assessment was done via measurements, they were spot measurements outside the residences of the study participants, which may not be an adequate surrogate of individual exposure. Furthermore, cross-sectional studies assess the relationship between the exposure and outcome at one time point only hence it is very difficult to draw conclusions from the results.