Radiation literature survey

Review date

November 2023

Article publication date

August 2023

Summary

This study compares ambient personal radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF EMF) measured across 19 Swiss cities in 2014 and 2021. Forty-nine outdoor areas (e.g., urban city centres, suburban and rural areas) were visited for undertaking RF-EMF measurements covering a range of broadcast and mobile telecommunication technologies (frequency range: 50 MHz to 6 GHz).  The RF-EMF mean exposure levels in 2014 and 2021 were estimated and compared. The results of the study show that RF-EMF levels in public places have not significantly changed between 2014 and 2021 despite an 18-fold increase in mobile data transmission during that period.

Link to

Comparison of ambient radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) levels in outdoor areas and public transport in Switzerland in 2014 and 2021

Published in

Environmental Research Volume 237

ARPANSA commentary

This study found that personal RF-EMF exposure levels measured in micro-environments during 2014-2021 remain well below international safety limits (e.g., the ICNIRP limits) and the exposure has not changed significantly over time. The exposure levels are comparable to those measured recently in Australia by the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) (Henderson et al 2023). Further, the findings that overall exposure remained unchanged are consistent with those found elsewhere (Ramirez-Vazquez et al., 2023; Markussen et al., 2022; Iakovidis et al., 2022), but contrary to what was found by other studies (Eeftens et al., 2023; Urbinello et al., 2014). 

Within the framework of the Australian Government’s Electromagnetic Energy (EME) program, ARPANSA has been monitoring RF-EMF exposures in communities, including the change in RF-EMF exposure levels over the past few years. The findings (of Henderson et al 2023 and unpublished data) indicate that RF-EMF exposures in Australia remained far below the Australian public safety limits described in the safety standard which align with the ICNIRP limits. Further, overall RF-EMF exposure in Australia remained largely unchanged despite many-fold increase in mobile data traffic data between 2015-2022.

Review date

November 2023

Article publication date

October 2023

Summary

This study used data from the UK Biobank prospective cohort study to examine the effects of mobile phone use on cancer incidence. A total of 431,861 participants were included, of which 66,266 (35,401 men and 30,865 women) developed cancer after a median follow up time of 10.7 years. The study collected information on mobile phone use by self-administered questionnaires and classified the participants to be exposed if they used a mobile phone at least once per week to make a call. In males, an increase in overall cancer incidence in mobile phone users was found (hazard ratio (HR) 1.09; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.06–1.12). The risk for specific cancers among males were: nonmelanoma skin cancer (NMSC) (HR 1.08; 95%CI 1.03-1.14), urinary tract cancer (HR 1.18; 95%CI 1.05-1.32) and prostate cancer (HR 1.19; 95%CI: 1.13-1.25). In women, increased risk of overall cancers (HR 1.03; 95%CI 1.00-1.06) among mobile phone users was found. The risk for specific cancers among females were: NMSC (HR 1.07; 95%CI 1.01 1.13), and vulvar cancer (HR 1.74; 95%CI 1.00-3.02). The study also reported a linear dose-response relationship between length (years) of mobile phone use and incident of NMSC in men and women (p value =<0.05), and prostate cancer in men (p=<0.05). No association between mobile phone use and brain cancers (HR 1.01; 95% CI 0.80-1.27) was found. The authors concluded that potential association of mobile phone use with the risk of urinary tract cancer in men and vulva cancer in women needs to be further verified.

Link to

Mobile phone use and risks of overall and 25 site-specific cancers: a prospective study from the UK Biobank Study

Published in

National Library of Medicine

ARPANSA commentary

The study results indicating a slightly elevated risk of cancers among mobile phone users are not supported by other large cohort studies such as the Danish cohort study or the Million Women Study. The Danish cohort study, which investigated the entire Danish population, reported no increased risk for males or females for cancer overall, prostate cancer, bladder cancer or other skin cancers (Johansen et al 2001 and Schüz et al 2005). Skin cancers, particularly non-melanoma skin cancers have been specifically looked into by the Danish cohort study and no increased risk was found among mobile phone users (Poulsen et al 2013).The Million Women study also found no increased risk of cancer in female mobile phone users for cancer overall or bladder cancer (Benson et al 2013). Further, neither the Danish cohort study or the Million Women study reported any dose response relationship between mobile phone use and any cancer types.

Mobile phone use has not previously been identified as a risk factor for vulvar cancer by any study. Furthermore, vulvar cancer already has a well understood risk factor in human papillomavirus (HPV) infection (Bucchi et al 2022). The authors did not account HPV infection as a confounding factor when evaluating the association between mobile phone use and vulvar cancer. Therefore, these particular findings could be questionable.

The study did not have updated information on mobile phone use (i.e., after initial assessment when the participants started using a mobile phone). To overcome this, the study restricted the analysis to people less likely to change their mobile phone habits and it is not clear how the authors would have done this. Therefore, this approach itself may have introduced bias into their analysis and might have affected the results.

Overall, though the results of the study suggest little increase in cancer risk among mobile phone users, the findings are not supported-up by other cohort studies. Therefore, these results in isolation cannot be considered as establishing an association between mobile phone use and cancer. There remains no substantiated evidence of adverse health effects from exposure to RF-EMF  originating from mobile phones and other wireless devices, where the exposures are below the public exposure limits set in the ARPANSA Standard and the International Commission on Non-ionizing Radiation Protection’s radiofrequency guidelines.

Review date

September 2023

Article publication date

August 2023

Summary

This systematic review and meta-analysis evaluated the current evidence on the association between radiofrequency electromagnetic field (RF-EMF) exposures during pregnancy and adverse reproductive health outcomes in offspring of experimental animals. Of total 88 papers included in the review, 65 were on rats, 20 in mice and 3 in other animals. The health outcomes were grouped into fecundity (i.e., litter size, embryonic/foetal losses), offspring health at birth (i.e., decrease of weight or length, congenital malformations, changes of sex ratio) and delayed effects on the offspring health (i.e., memory function, female infertility, etc.). The associations between RF-EMF exposure (i.e., whole body average Specific absorption rate, SAR)  and the health outcomes and their dose-response relationships were examined. The certainty of the evidence was also evaluated on the three levels of risk of bias (RoB): high, some or low concern.

For fecundity, a whole-body average SAR of 4.92 W/kg had no effect of exposure (means difference, MD 0.05; 95% Confidence Interval, CI - 0.21 to 0.30) on litter size. A whole-body average SAR of 20.26 W/kg, showed a significant increase of the resorbed or dead foetus in exposed animals (Odds ratio, OR 1.84; 95% CI 1.27 to 2.66).  Similar results were shown in the dose–response analysis. For offspring health at birth, a whole-body average SAR of 9.83 W/kg showed a small decrease in foetal weight among exposed animals standardized mean difference (SMD) 0.31; 95% CI 0.15 to 0.48). A whole-body average SAR of 4.55 W/kg showed a moderate decrease in foetal length at birth (SMD 0.45; 95% CI 0.07 to 0.83) in exposed animals. A whole-body average SAR of 6.75 W/kg showed a moderate increase in the proportion of foetuses with malformations (SMD - 0.45; 95% CI -0.68 to - 0.23) in exposed animals. A whole-body average SAR of 16.63 W/kg showed an increased incidence of litters with malformed foetuses (OR 3.22; 95% CI 1.9 to 5.46) in exposed animals. Similar results were shown in the dose–response analysis. For delayed effects, RF-EMF exposure was not associated with: i) detrimental effects on brain weight (SMD 0.10; 95% CI - 0.09 to 0.29, ii) learning and memory functions (SMD - 0.54; 95% CI - 1.24 to 0.17); and decrease in the size of litters conceived by the second generation female offspring (SMD 0.08; 95% CI - 0.39 to 0.55). However, the exposure was associated with a large detrimental effect on motor activity functions (SMD 0.79; 95% CI 0.21 to 1.38) and a moderate detrimental effect on motor and sensory functions (SMD - 0.66; 95% CI - 1.18 to - 0.14).

The study showed that RF-EMF exposure during pregnancy does not have an adverse effect on fecundity, likely affects offspring health at birth, probably does not affect offspring brain weight and may not decrease female offspring fertility; may have a detrimental impact on neurobehavioral functions. Most of the studies contributing to the pooled results, including reported significant associations, had either ‘high’ or ‘some’ RoB level.

Link to

Effects of Radiofrequency Electromagnetic Field (RF-EMF) exposure on pregnancy and birth outcomes: A systematic review of experimental studies on non-human mammals

Published in

Environment International 

ARPANSA commentary

The review provides state-of-the art evidence on whether in utero RF-EMF exposure is related to adverse reproductive health outcomes in experimental animal offspring. Though some of the study findings show significant associations, the studies yielding those results have high or some RoB indicating limited certainty of the results. This is primarily due to poor quality of the studies in terms of their methodological limitations, including small sample size in experimental group, limited confidence in outcome assessment, lack of blinding, inadequate exposure characterisation and dosimetry, inadequate assessment of temperature rise and lack of randomisation. Similar limitations have been highlighted in an ARPANSA review (Karipidis et al., 2023) assessing impact of RF-EMF exposure in fauna and flora in the environment.

The review reported whole body average SAR levels in the included experiments, which are far above the human  safety  limits given in the Australia Standard (e.g., RPS-S1) and internationally (the ICNIRP limits) and are generally not encountered in general public environments (e.g. from telecommunications transmitters or wireless devices). Therefore, the findings of the review may have a limited relevance to current RF-EMF exposure risk assessment for humans. Based on the current scientific evidence, it is the assessment of ARPANSA that there is no substantiated evidence that RF-EMF exposures at levels below the limits set in the ARPANSA Safety Standard cause any adverse health effects, including adverse reproductive health effects, in human populations.

The review forms part of the World Health Organization’s ongoing project to assess potential health effects of RF-EMF in the general and working population and ARPANSA is supporting this process.

Review date

September 2023

Article publication date

16 August 2023

Summary

This report discusses the measurement of 5G communication signals outdoors in Bilbao, Spain. These measurements were taken at multiple locations and for multiple frequency bands. The measured values were compared to previous measurements from the previous year and to public safety limits. It was found that radiofrequency electromagnetic energy (RF-EME) levels had slightly increased when compared to the previous year, however they were greatly below international safety guidelines provided by the ICNIRP.

Link to

Measurements and analysis of 5G mobile communications signals in outdoor environments

Published in

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 

ARPANSA commentary

This study found that 5G exposure levels in population-dense urban environments were well below public safety limits.

The finding that 5G measurements have remained well below safety limits is consistent with previous studies (Chountala et al., 2021, Celaya-Echarri et al., 2020) including a recent study conducted in Australia by ARPANSA (Henderson et al 2023). Limitations to this study include that only four locations were surveyed, and each were in relatively urban environments. Thus, whilst these measurements may be representative of exposures in population-dense cities, this may be less true for more rural environments.

Whilst there was a year-on-year increase found in RF-EME for frequencies in the 5G frequency range, this does not mean that RF-EME exposure is increasing overall. Other studies (Manassas et al., 2023) have indicated that RF-EME exposure is not continuously increasing but has increased and decreased at various points in time.

Australian public safety limits for RF-EME exposure, including 5G, are described in the Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) safety standard. These limits are well below levels at which harm from RF-EME exposure may occur. These limits are in line with the international guidelines set by ICNIRP.

Review date

September 2023

Article publication date

August 2023

Summary

Australia has one of the highest incidences of melanoma and non-melanoma skin cancers worldwide. A major cause of skin cancers is excessive and unprotected exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation, with effective sun protection behaviours making such cancers preventable. This cross-sectional study investigated changes in the sun protection behaviours of Western Australian adolescents and adults during the summers between 2015/16 and 2020/21. Over this six-year period, 1806 14-17 year olds and 1808 18-45 year olds were involved in a randomised phone survey that assessed their frequency of five sun protection behaviours – wearing protective clothing, applying sunscreen, wearing a hat, wearing sunglasses and seeking shade, as well as demographic factors such as their gender, skin type and area of residency. Sun avoidance by staying indoors was also assessed. Amongst the adolescent group, it was found that the use of hats and sunscreen remained relatively stable, seeking shade and sun avoidance increased, and wearing protective clothing and sunglasses decreased. All sun protection behaviours remained relatively stable over the six-year period in the adult group, except for wearing sunscreen, which increased. Overall, the sun protection behaviours of adults were found to be better than that of adolescents. It was noted that the findings of this study could assist in tailoring messages to shape future health promotions regarding sun exposure.

Link to

Patterns of Sun Protection Behaviours among Australian Adolescents and Adults over a Six-Year Period

Published in

Current Oncology

ARPANSA commentary

Australia experiences some of the highest levels of UV radiation in the world, with the UV index frequently reaching over 11 (extreme) in some parts of the country during the summer months. Consequently, more than two in three Australians will be diagnosed with skin cancer in their lifetime, many of which will be UV induced and preventable. Sun protection behaviours and actions are extremely important to reduce this exposure and decrease the incidence of UV induced skin cancers. Sun protection is strongly recommended when the UV index reaches 3 or higher. Real time UV index measurements that can be used to determine when sun protection is needed can be found on the ARPANSA Ultraviolet Radiation Index webpage.

Sun protection is particularly important for Australian children and adolescents. High sun exposure in the first decade of life more than doubles the risk of developing melanoma later in life. Similarly, intense, intermittent sun exposure (number of sunburns and sunbathing vacations) during each decade up to 29 years of age increases risk of melanoma by more than one-and-a-half times.

It is concerning that the study showed that the sun protection behaviours of adolescents decreased over the six-year period. Similar findings have been reported in studies completed by the Australian Cancer Council. Both studies also report that the percentages of adults and adolescents that engage in these behaviours are troublingly low. Ideally, 100% of Australians would partake in sun protection behaviours when outside and the UV index is 3 or above, but no single behaviour surpasses 61% in either study.

It is important that Australians, particularly children and adolescents, are aware of the dangers of UV exposure and are encouraged to partake in sun protection behaviours. The SunSmart Website provides advice on sun protection for families with teens. The results of this study indicate that more work needs to be done in increasing awareness and promoting sun protection behaviours. More information on UV protection can be found on the ARPANSA Sun Protection factsheet.

Review date

September 2023

Article publication date

August 2023

Summary

This multinational cohort study investigated the effect of long term low dose and low dose rate exposure to ionising radiation on cancer risk for workers included in an update to The International Nuclear Workers Study (INWORKS). INWORKS includes data from cohorts of nuclear workers with personal dosimeters in France, the UK, and the US. Overall, the study included 309 932 workers. The study found the excess relative risk  of mortality due to solid cancer with cumulative dose to be 0.52 (90% confidence interval 0.27 to 0.77) per gray (Gy). Smoking and asbestos exposure were investigated as confounders by excluding deaths from lung cancer and pleural cancer, and it was determined that they did not have a substantial effect. The results of this study show an increase in the relative rate of cancer mortality with increasing exposure to ionising radiation. The study notes that the estimated excess relative risk is even greater than estimates currently informing radiation protection.

Link to

Cancer mortality after low dose exposure to ionising radiation in workers in France, the United Kingdom, and the United States (INWORKS): cohort study

Published in

BMJ

ARPANSA commentary

The study reports evidence of an increase in the excess relative risk of solid cancer mortality with increasing cumulative exposure to ionising radiation at low dose rates. This is consistent with the current approach to radiation protection where a linear association between cumulative low dose ionising radiation and solid cancer is assumed, primarily informed by studies of atomic bombing survivor cohorts (WHO). The reported findings are also consistent with the majority of epidemiological studies investigating low dose exposure and cancer mortality (Rühm et al., 2022 and Hauptmann et al., 2020).

The INWORKS study does not have individual level data on some potentially important confounding factors, such as smoking and asbestos. The impact of these factors could only be indirectly assessed by excluding related cancers from the study. Lack of individual level data means the impact of these factors could not be measured empirically.

A cohort study (Sokolnikov et al., 2015) of workers employed at Mayak facilities for plutonium production, which has been influential in impacting estimates of excess relative risk in literature reviews due to its size and high magnitude doses, estimated an excess relative risk three to four times lower than the INWORKS study.

ARPANSA aims to ensure the highest standard of protection against the harmful effects of radiation to people and the environment, which is outlined in relevant Codes and Safety Guides. The requirements in Australia for the protection of both occupationally exposed people and members of the public for planned exposure situations are outlined in the Code for Radiation Protection in Planned Exposure Situations (2020), RPS C-1 (Rev.1). The annual exposure limits to ionising radiation, across all Australian jurisdictions, is 1 milliseiverts (mSv) for the public and 20 mSv for the occupationally exposed.

Review date

18 August 2023

Article publication date

July 2023

Summary

This ecological study evaluates the relationship between incidence and mortality trends of malignant brain tumours and  the number of mobile phone users in Taiwan. Data on brain tumour trends and mobile phone use (for the period of 2000–2019) were obtained from the Taiwan Cancer Registry and the National Communications Commission, respectively. The study showed a large increase in mobile phone use over the period whilst the brain tumour and mortality rates have remained stable. The study did not show any significant association between the number of mobile phone users and brain tumour incidences and mortalities over 20 years.

Link to

Incidence and Mortality of Malignant Brain Tumors after 20 Years of Mobile Use

Published In

Cancers

ARPANSA commentary

Consistent to previous studies (Deltour et al., 2022, Elwood et al., 2022) including that conducted in Australia (Karipidis et al., 2018), this study indicates no association between increased number of mobile phone users and brain tumour incidence and/or mortality. Ecological studies despite having their benefits (e.g., low cost and useful in hypothesis generation), offer a limited level of evidence and suffer from the ecological fallacy.

The findings of this study are in line with a recent review conducted by the US Food and Drug Administration on RF-EMF and Cancer. The World Health Organization is currently assessing state-of-the-art evidence on potential human health effects (including brain tumours) of exposure to radiofrequency (RF) electromagnetic fields (EMF) such as those associated with mobile phone use in human populations. Based on the current scientific evidence, and consistent with the findings of this study, it is the assessment of ARPANSA that there is no substantiated evidence that RF-EMF exposures at levels below the limits set in the ARPANSA Safety Standard cause any adverse health effects, including cancers in human populations.

Review date

9 August 2023

Article publication date

April 2023

Summary

This cross-sectional study assessed the relationship between self-reported skin cancer prevalence and the UV index in the United States (US). The study was based on the data from the Center for Disease Control and Prevention’s 2019 Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System. Self-reported data on lifetime skin cancer risk among 310,750 non-Hispanic white adults were collected from 47 continental states and the District of Columbia; while UV index data were gathered from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration UV index database. The study examined the significance of living in a low (5 or less), medium (6–7), or high (8 or higher) UV index state. Among reported 29,925 skin cancer cases, the prevalence of skin cancer was significantly higher in high UV index (> / = 8) states than in medium UV (6–7) and lower UV (< / = 5) (p < 0.0001). Compared to the respondents from low UV index states, those from a medium or high UV index states had higher odds of reporting a skin cancer diagnosis; Odds radio (OR) = 1.21 [confidence interval (CI): 1.15–2.27], OR =1.55 [CI: 1.47–1.63], respectively. The study concluded that UV exposure index (i.e., geographical residence) is related to prevalence of skin cancers in the United States.

Link to

The epidemiology of skin cancer by UV index: cross-sectional analysis from the 2019 behavioral risk factor surveillance survey

Published in

Archives of Dermatological Research

ARPANSA commentary

This study indicated an association between UV exposure index and prevalence of skin cancers.

This finding is consistent with a latest study from the US (Borad et al., 2023) that found an association between paediatric melanoma cases and UV index among white children. Similarly, a review (Xiang et al., 2014), that examined studies between 1978 and 2012, indicated higher ambient daily UV exposure to be associated with higher skin cancer incidence rates in white populations. Limitations of this study include self-reported skin cancer diagnosis by the respondents. Though comparable data from Australia are limited, a high proportion of skin cancers in Australia are attributable to high ambient levels of UV radiation exposure (Olsen et al., 2010). For example, 7,220 melanomas and essentially all keratinocyte cancers reported (in the year 2010) in Australia were attributable to high ambient UV exposure levels in Australia.

The Australian Radiation Protection and Nuclear Safety Agency (ARPANSA) measures the UV index in various locations in Australia and makes this real-time data publicly available daily. In view of preventing skin cancer occurrences, Australia implements the world leading SunSmart program, which recommends people to adopt a combination of five sun protection measures, namely; Slip (on clothing), Slop (on SPF50 or higher), Slap (on a hat), Seek (a shade), Slide (on sunglasses), whenever the UV index is 3 or above. ARPANSA also provides evidence-based public health messages in relation to UV protection measures, including sun protection factsheets. A Free SunSmart Global UV app provides real time sun protection advice for Australian and major international cities to inform people about sun protection measures, whenever required.

Review date

July 2023

Article publication date

May 2023

Summary

This experimental and observational study examined bee exposure to extremely low frequency (ELF) electric and magnetic fields (EMF). The study observed bee visitation to flowers around active and inactive power transmission towers. The study also placed caged bees under active and around inactive power transmission towers and exposed bees to ELF EMF in the laboratory using a solenoid. ELF EMF exposure in the field around the active power transmission towers was approximately 9.47 μT compared to 1.5 μT around the inactive towers. The exposure in the laboratory was approximately 7.8 μT. The exposed bees were tested for changes in mRNA levels of stress response genes such as heat shock proteins (HSP) and genes that relate to behavioural changes in bees such as the caMKII that relates to long term memory.  The study also examined flower abundance around power transmission towers. The study reported that flower visits did not change based on ELF EMF exposure. However, flower abundance was reduced around active power transmission towers, and this reduced the number of bee visits to that area. The authors reported that bees exposed to ELF EMF both in the laboratory and in the field were showed increased expression of HSP70 and reduced expression in caMKII. The authors concluded that ELF EMF exposure impacts bee physiology and behaviour.

Link to

Electromagnetic fields disrupt the pollination service by honeybees

Published in

Science Advances

ARPANSA commentary

This paper reported an increase in the expression of HSP and genes related to behaviour in bees when exposed to ELF EMF. Very few studies have examined changes in expression related to ELF EMF exposures in bees or even in insects. A previous study exposed cockroaches  to ELF EMF at 1000 μT and found no changes in expression of HSP70, however, the study did find an increase in HSP expression at 10,000 μT, which is 50 times greater than  the international human safety limit of 200 μT (ILIJIN et al 2021). Another study exposed flies to ELF at 0.004 μT and reported increases, decreases and no changes in expression of HSP70 in different exposed fly groups when compared to controls (Tipping et al 1999).

The current study also reported changes in the expression of caMKII that may be associated with long term memory. However, despite this change in expression of this gene there were no behavioural changes observed in exposed bees. This may indicate that the level of expression change in caMMKII observed has no functional outcome in bees.

The study did not report on possible confounders, such as the presence of herbicides. They are commonly used to control vegetation around transmission lines and towers. The use of herbicide, specifically glyphosate also known as roundup, has been shown to change gene expression in bees (Battisti et al 2022). Glyphosate has been reported to increase the expression of HSP and effect learning and memory (Tan et al 2022). The use of herbicides would also explain the reduction in flower abundance around the power transmission towers.

Generally, most research has been at levels much higher than would normally be encountered by bees in the environment. The evidence on the effect of ELF EMF on insects remains weak with some conflicting results and further research is required (Vanbergen et al, 2019).

Review date

19 July 2023

Article publication date

May 2023

Summary

This systematic review examined the physical agents flight crew are exposed to during their work. The review included 35 epidemiological studies (32 cohort, 2 case-control and 1 cross-sectional). The review reported that most of the included studies were of moderate quality, and often had short observation durations which reduce the level of evidence they provide. It found that cosmic radiation, air pressure, noise, and vibrations were the main risk factors for aircrew. The study also investigated hypobaric pressure as a potential risk factor but found knowledge gap in this area. The review reported conflicting results with some research linking cosmic radiation exposure in aircrew to increased cancer incidence and other research reporting no significant difference between cancer cases in aircrew and the general population. The systematic review concluded that long term studies are needed to improve the understanding of potential occupational health risks among aircrews.

Link to

Aircrew Health: A Systematic Review of Physical Agents as Occupational Risk Factors

Published in

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

ARPANSA commentary

The findings of this review are consistent with a previous Australian study (Dusingize et al, 2019) conducted in conjunction with ARPANSA that examined how flying hours of pilots influence the incidence of cancer, particularly melanoma. The study identified cosmic radiation and ultraviolet (UV) radiation as possible risk factors. The Australian study found that the most exposed pilots are at no increased risk of melanoma when comparing pilots who fly the most and those that fly the least. Another review by Scheibler et al (2022) reported that the epidemiological literature provides little consistent evidence that directly links cosmic radiation with cancer in flight crew. This review does go on to say that there is some evidence of an association between cancer and occupational exposure to the flight environment, however, it is difficult to disentangle cosmic radiation exposure from other environmental influences such as circadian rhythm disruption.

The ARPANSA Guide for Radiation Protection in Existing Exposure Situations Radiation Protection Series G-2 provides a framework for managing existing exposure situations, including exposure of aircrew due to cosmic radiation. Similarly, ARPANSA’s Radiation Protection Standard for Occupational Exposure to Ultraviolet Radiation (2006) sets fundamental requirements for safety in relation to occupational UV radiation exposure. Although an elevated risk of skin melanoma among commercial pilots has been indicated by recent epidemiological studies (Olsen et al, 2019), generally, there is no increase in health risk from exposure to cosmic or UV radiation for casual flyers. However, some of the frequent flyers (critical population groups e.g., pregnant women and children) may exceed  exposure safety limits for cosmic radiation (Tate et al, 2021), and hence additional awareness or protection may be considered.